INTRODUCTION:

Nanotechnology is a modern scientific discipline that influences many aspects of everyday life. It mainly focuses on materials within the nanometer scale. The term nanoparticle describes particles ranging in size from 1 to 1000 nm, typically composed of synthetic or semi-synthetic polymers. These nanoparticles are particularly effective in delivering chemicals to specific sites within the body.¹ In pharmaceuticals, nanoparticles (NPs) are frequently used to transport drugs, release them at target sites, overcome biological barriers, and reduce drug degradation. They enhance drug solubility, bioavailability, and dissolution rates, especially for poorly water-soluble medicines.Advances in pharmaceutical research have increasingly utilized nanocarrier-based delivery systems to improve drug stability, bioavailability, and targeted organ delivery. ²These nanocarriers, with submicron size and high adaptability, include polymeric, lipid-based, and inorganic nanoparticles, as well as liposomes, nanotubes, Nano-complexes, and niosomes. Their benefits in drug delivery include improved pharmacokinetics, optimized bio-distribution, reduced toxicity, controlled release, and site-specific drug transport.³ Nanotechnology has become an essential tool for enhancing and refining conventional drug delivery techniques. Nanocarriers can be engineered with varying physicochemical properties by adjusting their size, shape, composition, and surface features. Both organic (liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, micelles, and virus-like particles) and inorganic (mesoporous silica nanoparticles and metallic nanoparticles) systems are used in drug delivery. Nanocarrier systems enhancing drug administration routes, bio-distribution, and reduce immunogenicity and side effects. They can transport drugs actively or passively to targeted sites with smaller doses and greater precision, minimizing adverse effects. Moreover, they help address major challenges of traditional therapies, such as non-specific distribution, rapid clearance, unpredictable release, and poor bioavailability. Different types of nanocarriers, each with specific properties and applications, have been developed. This review highlights a range of drug delivery systems based on organic, inorganic, carbon-based materials, and quantum dots, discussing their design strategies and evolving applications for therapeutic purposes.⁴

Figure 1: Physiological Role of Nano carrier

Characteristic of Nano Carrier Based on Drug Delivery System:

1.High surface area-to-volume ratio: Nanocarriers are characterized by their high-surface area-to-volume ratio, which means that their surface area is significantly larger compared to their volume. This attribute is particularly vital in the field of medication delivery since it facilitates effective drug incorporation and interactions with biological components such as cell membranes. The large surface area facilitates increased drug loading, rendering it a suitable option for medicines with diverse solubility’s or those necessitating accurate dosing. ⁵

2. Customized surface characteristics: Nanocarriers can be carefully engineered with unique surface properties. These may include features such as electrical charge, hydrophobic or hydrophilic tendencies, and the incorporation of ligands or targeting agents. Altering these surface characteristics allows for precise control over their behavior, enabling selective interactions with specific tissues, cells, or biomolecules. In the context of UC, this capability is highly advantageous, as it allows accurate targeting of inflamed regions in the colon while sparing healthy tissues.

3.Versatility in drug loading: Nanocarriers exhibit exceptionalversatility in their ability to contain a wide range of therapeutic ingredients. They possess the ability to effectively transport a diverse array of molecules, encompassing tiny chemical compounds, proteins, nucleic acids, and even imaging agents. This adaptability is especially pertinent in UC therapy since the efficient management of the disease may necessitate the use of numerous therapeutic modalities. Nanocarriers have the ability to include anti-inflammatory medicines, immunosuppressant, or biologics, enabling the customization of combination therapy to suit the individual requirements of the patient. ⁶

4. Regulated drug discharge: One of the primary benefits of Nano carriers is their capacity to offer regulated drug discharge. The rate at which the therapeutic drug is released from the encapsulation can be precisely controlled to align with the intended therapeutic outcome. Controlled drug release can offer significant advantages within the framework of UC. This technology facilitates continuous administration of medication to the inflamed colon, guaranteeing a consistent therapeutic impact for a prolonged duration and reducing the necessity for frequent administration of doses.

Physicochemical Characterization:

The physicochemical attributes of nanocarriers include particle size, size distribution, surface charge, hydrophobicity, and morphology. Assessing these properties helps predict key factors such as physical stability and drug entrapment efficiency.⁷

1 Particle Size and shape: Among the most crucial features of are their particle size, shape, and degree of dispersity, with the latter often expressed as the polydispersity index (PDI). These parameters significantly influence biodistribution and clearance from the body. Furthermore, they determine interactions such as attachment, firm adhesion, phagocytosis, circulation half-life, cellular uptake, intracellular distribution, and endocytosis.

2 Particle Size Analysis: Two critical factors in characterizing nanoparticles are particle size distribution and shape. Nanoparticles are primarily utilized in drug delivery and targeting. Particle size significantly influences drug release, as smaller particles provide a larger surface area. Consequently, most of the drug adsorbed on these particles is exposed to the surface, leading to rapid release.⁸

3. Dynamic Light Scattering: Dynamic Light Scattering is a widely used technique for determining the size of nanoparticles in colloidal suspensions within the Nano- and submicron ranges. When a laser illuminates spherical particles undergoing Brownian motion, the scattered light experiences a Doppler shift, altering its wavelength. This shift depends on particle size. By calculating the diffusion coefficient and applying the autocorrelation function, one can determine the particle size distribution and describe their motion in the medium. Photon Correlation Spectroscopy (PCS) is the most common DLS-based method for accurately estimating particle size and distribution. ⁹

4.Surface Charge and Water Repellence:

The surface characteristics of nanocarriers on their outside are very important because they affect how well they can be used by the body, how stable they are, how cells take them in, and how they spread throughout the body. The zeta (ζ) potential, which reflects the surface charge, signifies potential electrostatic interactions among the nanocarrier units, influences aggregation tendencies, and aids in choosing suitable coating materials. By application of an electrical current to the sample, the laser Doppler velocimetry is used to measured a motion of nanocarriers. However, people now like using electrophoretic light scattering because it gives better precision, more sensitivity, and is more flexible. Usually, measuring zeta potential can change a lot based on the pH and the amount of ions. Generally, we need to dilute the sample before we can take measurements. ¹⁰

The hydrophobicity of nanocarriers can be assessed using adsorption probe methods, hydrophobic interaction chromatography, contact angle measurements, and biphasic partitioning. Additionally, X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy identifies specific chemical groups on the surface, providing predictive insights into hydrophobicity.

Morphology of Nano Carriers:

The structure of nanocarriers and their aggregation characteristics are crucial elements impacting various biological properties such as their half-life, targeting effectiveness, and toxicity. Various non-spherical forms, such as discs, ellipsoids, cylinders, hemispheres, cubes, cones, and additional intricate shapes, significantly influence those biological processes. On one hand, atomic force microscopy allows for high-resolution examination of nanocarrier shapes without modifying sample characteristics prior to measurement.¹¹

Targeting Mechanisms:

To deliver medications precisely to target locations within the body, Nano carriers use a variety of targeting methods.

Systems for targeted drug delivery include two different types,

1. Active targeting:

Active targeting of nanocarriers entails adding specialized chemicals known as ligands to their surface that may identify and attach to specific target cell receptors. By accurately delivering the drug-loaded Nano carriers to the diseased cells, this focused strategy maximizes therapeutic efficacy and reduces side effects. ¹²

2. Ligands:

The choice of ligands relies on their ability to selectively attach to receptors on target cells that are overexpressed. Typical examples of ligands are antibodies, peptides, and proteins. The ligands on the nanocarriers’ surface bind to specific receptors on the target cells after being injected into the body. The drug payload can directly enter diseased cells due to this binding, enabling the nanocarriers to be internalized within the cells. After the nanocarriers are internalized, the drug payload is released either through passive means or in reaction to specific triggers like changes in the pH, temperature, or enzymatic activity of the target cells.¹³

Figure 2: Targeting Mechanism

3. Passive targeting:

Nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems primarily utilize passive targeting as a key strategy. The improved permeability and retention (EPR) effect, stemming from the distinctive biological traits of certain tissues, especially tumors, is the primary driver of passive targeting. Passive targeting relies on the concept that nanoparticles can gather at disease locations, thanks to their size and other characteristics, where standard treatments might not penetrate efficiently (Figure 3). This method works well with nanocarriers sized between 10 and 200 nm. Larger particles (>200 nm) might face difficulties infiltrating the tumor vasculature, whereas particles smaller than 10 nm can be rapidly eliminated from circulation by the kidneys. Spherical nanocarriers are frequently utilized because of their advantageous circulatory distribution. They are frequently altered with polyethylene glycol (PEG) or other “stealth” substances to evade detection by the immune system. Encapsulated chemotherapeutic agents can accumulate more efficiently in tumor tissues, improving the therapeutic index and minimizing systemic toxicity. To enhance drug penetration and release, passive targeting is coupled with external stimuli such as hyperthermia or ultrasound to boost the EPR effect and facilitate deeper nanoparticle diffusion. ¹⁴

Figure 3: Passive Targeting Mechanism

Types of Nano Carrier in Drug Delivery System:

1. Inorganic nanocarrier for drug delivery system

a. Gold nanocarrier

b. Silica nanocarrier

c. Magnetic nanocarrier

d. Silver nanocarrier

2. Organic nanocarrier for drug delivery system

a. Polymeric nanocarrier

b. Dendrimers

c. Liposome

d. Nano hydrogel

3. Quantum dots Nano carrier for drug delivery system

4. Carbon nanotube Nano carrier for drug delivery system ¹⁵

Figure 4: Types of nanocarrier for drug delivery system

1 Inorganic Nanocarrier for Drug Delivery System:

Nanoparticles exhibit highly innovative chemical characteristics, and a wide range of inorganic nanoparticles are currently utilized as drug carriers. These nanoparticles possess remarkable physical and chemical properties, such as a large surface area, distinctive optical and magnetic features, and the ability to be functionalized with various ligands that enhance their targeting efficiency. Compared to organic nanoparticles, inorganic nanocarriers demonstrate superior biocompatibility, hydrophilicity, non-toxicity, and stability (Paul & Sharma, 2020). Additionally, drugs loaded onto inorganic nanoparticles are released in a controlled manner while being protected from premature degradation.¹⁶

Gold Nanocarrier: Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have gained significant attention owing to their low toxicity, chemical inertness, high stability, and facile surface modification with targeting ligands such as antibodies and folic acid. Their distinct optical properties further support applications in both therapy and diagnostics.Several AuNP-based systems have demonstrated enhanced therapeutic outcomes. Hesperidin-loaded AuNPs showed selective cytotoxicity against breast cancer cells with minimal toxicity to normal cells and reduced inflammatory cytokine expression. Hyaluronan-conjugated AuNPs effectively crossed ocular barriers, providing protection against retinal degeneration and neovascularization. Doxorubicin-loaded AuNPs exhibited pH- and redox-responsive drug release, improving drug stability and reducing systemic toxicity. Additionally, dual-drug-loaded gold nanorods enabled targeted and stimuli-responsive delivery, resulting in enhanced anticancer efficacy through synergistic therapy.¹⁷

Silica Nanocarrier: Silica-based nanoparticles (SNPs), particularly mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs), are widely investigated for drug delivery due to their easy synthesis, excellent stability, tunable size and morphology, biocompatibility, and scalable production. Their particle size (20–600 nm) and shape can be precisely controlled, enabling targeted delivery and controlled drug release while enhancing drug stability. MSNs possess exceptionally high surface areas (up to 1000 m²/g) and adjustable pore sizes (2–50 nm), allowing efficient encapsulation of diverse therapeutic agents. Their strong thermal and chemical stability, along with surface functionalization capability, supports localized, implantable, and targeted therapies, including bone tissue engineering. Additionally, unique optical properties enable applications in bioimaging and biosensing. Overall, silica nanocarriers represent versatile and promising platforms for next-generation nanomedicine.¹⁸

Magnetic Nanocarrier: Magnetic nanocarriers combine magnetic nanoparticles with therapeutic agents for targeted drug delivery, imaging, and hyperthermia therapy. Guided by external magnetic fields, they enable site-specific drug release. Optimized particle size enhances circulation, tumor accumulation, and therapeutic efficacy, particularly for poorly soluble anticancer drugs.²⁰

Nanocarrier: Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) possess unique chemical, physical, and biological properties, including high conductivity, distinctive optical behavior, and broad-spectrum antimicrobial and anticancer activity. Their high surface area, tunable size, and modifiable surface chemistry enable applications in drug delivery, biosensing, bioimaging, and medical device coatings. In nanomedicine, AgNPs are explored as drug carriers and as intrinsic anticancer agents, often combined with drugs or natural compounds to enhance therapeutic efficacy. Particle size critically influences stability, biodistribution, clearance, and drug release, with 50–200 nm considered optimal for prolonged circulation and effective delivery. While AgNPs offer targeted release and reduced side effects, concerns remain regarding potential toxicity and high production costs.²¹

2. Organic Nanocarrier for Drug Delivery System:

Organic nanocarriers are versatile drug delivery systems designed to enhance therapeutic efficacy while minimizing side effects. They encapsulate drugs, protect them from degradation, and enable site-specific delivery. Common organic nanocarriers include liposomes, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, and nanogels, constructed from biological or synthetic materials such as lipids, polymers, surfactants, and cyclodextrins. These carriers exhibit favorable properties including biocompatibility, biodegradability, high drug-loading capacity, low toxicity, and ease of surface modification. By tailoring their composition and surface characteristics, organic nanocarriers can selectively target diseased tissues, improve drug absorption and bioavailability, and reduce off-target effects, making them highly effective platforms for advanced drug delivery applications.^22,23

3.Polymeric nanocarrier:

Polymeric nanocarriers are advanced drug delivery platforms widely used for treating complex diseases such as cancer. Their nanoscale size (10–1000 nm) enables prolonged circulation, efficient cellular uptake, and penetration across biological barriers, including the blood–brain barrier. These carriers are highly versatile due to flexible polymer chemistry, allowing precise control over size, drug loading, and release behavior. Polymeric nanoparticles can encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs, peptides, and proteins, improving solubility and stability. Stimuli-responsive designs triggered by pH, temperature, or enzymes allow site-specific release. Overall, polymeric nanocarriers enhance therapeutic efficacy, reduce dosing frequency, and minimize systemic toxicity.^24,25

4. Dendrimers:

Dendrimers are highly branched, monodisperse macromolecules with a well-defined core–shell architecture and nanoscale dimensions (1.5–14.5 nm). Their stepwise synthesis allows precise control over molecular weight, branching, and surface functionality. Drugs can be encapsulated within internal cavities or conjugated to surface groups through chemical or physical interactions. This unique architecture enables high drug-loading capacity, controlled release, and targeted delivery. Dendrimers are extensively explored for gene delivery, imaging, immunotherapy, and the delivery of antiviral, antibacterial, and anticancer agents. Their multivalency and surface modifiability make them powerful nanocarriers for precision medicine.^26,27

Liposomes:

Liposomes are spherical vesicles composed of phospholipid bilayers, widely used as clinically successful drug delivery systems. Their unique structure enables encapsulation of hydrophilic drugs in the aqueous core and hydrophobic drugs within the lipid bilayer. Liposomes protect drugs from degradation, improve bioavailability, and reduce toxicity by enabling targeted and controlled release. Surface modification, such as PEGylation or ligand attachment, enhances circulation time and tissue-specific targeting. Due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and resemblance to biological membranes, liposomes are extensively applied in cancer therapy, dermatology, and gene delivery, playing a crucial role in smart drug delivery systems.²⁸

Nano hydrogel:

Nanogels are nanoscale hydrogel systems composed of cross-linked hydrophilic or amphiphilic polymer networks. Their soft, swollen structure enables high drug-loading capacity for hydrophilic, hydrophobic, and charged molecules. Nanogels protect encapsulated drugs from chemical and enzymatic degradation and allow controlled, stimuli-responsive release. Their small size enhances tumor accumulation, cellular uptake, and therapeutic efficacy while reducing toxicity. Nanogels can be administered through multiple non-invasive routes, including oral, topical, nasal, ocular, and inhalation pathways. Owing to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and targeting potential, nanogels are promising carriers for advanced pharmaceutical and cancer therapies.²⁹

5. Quantum dots Nano Carrier for Drug Delivery System:

Quantum dots (QDs) are fluorescent semiconductor nanoparticles widely used in nanodrug delivery for their unique optical and physicochemical properties. With sizes ranging from 2–10 nm, QDs enable real-time tracking of drug biodistribution, cellular uptake, and release. Their tunable fluorescence, high brightness, and photostability make them valuable for imaging and theranostic applications. QDs can be integrated into nanocarriers or act as traceable analogs of other nanoparticles. However, concerns regarding toxicity, poor biodegradability, and tissue accumulation—due to heavy metal content—limit their clinical translation, necessitating safer and biocompatible alternatives.³⁰

6.Carbon Nanotube Nanocarrier for Drug Delivery Systems:

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical carbon nanostructures with exceptional mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and high surface area. Their hollow structure allows efficient loading of drugs, genes, and imaging agents, while surface functionalization improves solubility, biocompatibility, and targeted delivery. CNTs enhance drug stability, cellular uptake, and controlled release, leading to improved therapeutic outcomes. Functionalized CNTs are explored for cancer therapy, vaccine delivery, diagnostics, and biosensing. Additionally, CNTs are used in pharmaceutical applications such as chiral drug separation. Despite their advantages, careful surface modification is essential to minimize toxicity and ensure safe biomedical use.³¹

Application:

Nanocarriers have gained considerable attention across multiple fields for their ability to encapsulate and deliver active substances—such as drugs, genes, or therapeutic agents in a controlled and efficient manner.

1. Drug Delivery

Nanocarriers improve pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics by enhancing solubility, protecting drugs from degradation, and enabling controlled or sustained release.

2. Cancer Therapy

Nanocarriers deliver anticancer drugs selectively to tumor tissues using targeting strategies, reducing systemic toxicity and improving therapeutic efficiency.³²

3. Gene Delivery

Nanocarriers transport nucleic acids such as DNA, RNA, and siRNA into cells, enabling efficient gene therapy with improved stability and cellular uptake.³³

4. Delivery of Biopharmaceuticals

Nanocarriers protect proteins, enzymes, vaccines, and antibodies from degradation, extend circulation time, and enhance absorption across biological barriers.³⁴

5. Targeted Drug Delivery

Surface-engineered nanocarriers recognize specific molecular markers on diseased cells, ensuring precise drug delivery with minimal damage to healthy tissues.

6. Enhanced Drug Solubility and Stability

Nanocarriers improve solubility of hydrophobic drugs and prevent enzymatic or chemical degradation, increasing bioavailability and therapeutic effectiveness.

7. Overcoming Biological Barriers

Nanocarriers cross biological barriers through surface modification and the EPR effect, enabling efficient delivery to otherwise inaccessible target tissues.³⁵

Challenges:

1. Toxicity concerns: Nanocarriers may induce organ toxicity and long-term safety issues.

2. Immunogenicity: Some nanocarriers trigger immune responses or rapid clearance.

3. Poor biodegradability: Non-biodegradable carriers accumulate, causing chronic toxicity risks.

4. Scale-up difficulties: Laboratory synthesis methods are hard to reproduce industrially.

5. High production cost: Advanced materials and fabrication processes increase formulation expenses.

6. Batch-to-batch variability: Minor formulation changes affect size, stability, and drug loading.

7. Stability issues: Nanocarriers may aggregate or release drugs prematurely during storage.

8. Limited targeting efficiency: Not all nanocarriers reach intended tissues effectively.³⁶

9. Biological barrier penetration: Crossing blood–brain and mucosal barriers remains challenging.

10. Rapid clearance: Nanoparticles may be removed by kidneys or reticuloendothelial system.

11. Complex regulatory approval: Lack of standardized guidelines delays clinical translation.

12. Drug leakage: Premature drug release reduces therapeutic effectiveness.³⁷

13. Surface modification complexity: Functionalization requires precise chemistry and optimization.

14. Particle size control: Size variations influence biodistribution and clearance unpredictably.

15. Limited clinical data: Insufficient long-term human studies hinder approval confidence.

16. Environmental concerns: Nanomaterial disposal poses ecological and safety challenges.

17. Reproducibility issues: Nanocarrier behavior varies across biological models.

18. Drug loading limitations: Some carriers show poor encapsulation efficiency.

19. Interaction with plasma proteins: Protein corona alters nanocarrier targeting behavior.

20. Ethical and safety concerns: Long-term nanomedicine risks remain incompletely understood.³⁸

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES:

Future nanocarrier research will focus on designing safe, biodegradable, and multifunctional platforms for precision medicine. Advances in surface engineering and stimuli-responsive systems will enable highly controlled, site-specific drug release. Integration of artificial intelligence and computational modeling will optimize nanocarrier design, predict biodistribution, and reduce development time. Nanocarriers will play a critical role in personalized therapy, immunotherapy, and gene editing technologies. Continued progress in theranostic nanocarriers will allow simultaneous diagnosis and treatment. Moreover, expanding applications in vaccine delivery, radiopharmaceuticals, and mRNA-based therapies highlight nanocarriers’ transformative role in future healthcare, provided regulatory and safety challenges are addressed.

CONCLUSION:

Nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems represent a transformative advancement in pharmaceutical and biomedical sciences. Their unique physicochemical properties—such as nanoscale size, high surface area, and surface functionalization—enable targeted, controlled, and sustained drug delivery while minimizing systemic toxicity. Both inorganic and organic nanocarriers have demonstrated remarkable potential in improving bioavailability, therapeutic efficacy, and patient compliance, particularly in cancer therapy, gene delivery, and biopharmaceutical administration. Emerging platforms incorporating quantum dots and carbon nanotubes further expand diagnostic and theranostic capabilities. Despite these advantages, challenges related to toxicity, scalability, stability, and regulatory approval must be carefully addressed through extensive in vitro and in vivo evaluation. With continued interdisciplinary research, computational modeling, and clinical validation, nanocarriers are poised to become cornerstone technologies in precision medicine and next-generation drug delivery systems.

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Received on 02.02.2026 Revised on 09.03.2026

Accepted on 07.04.2026 Published on 25.04.2026

Available online from April 28, 2026

Research J. Science and Tech. 2026; 18(2):223-231.

DOI: 10.52711/2349-2988.2026.00031

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